| Vanuatu has one of the highest ratios of number of
languages to population size of any country in the world (Tryon 1976). One hundred and
five different languages are spoken in the archipelago-approximately one language for
every 1400 people in a total population of about 150,000. Vanuatu also possesses detailed
folk taxonomic systems that distinguish and classify at least 247 kava cultivars clustered
into 82 morphotypes (Lebot and Levesque 1989). This taxonomic complexity no doubt relates
in part to environmental factors. The numerous cultivars grown throughout the archipelago
have adapted to diverse ecological conditions imposed by elevation (kava grows at
altitudes up to 1100 meters on Santo and 800 meters on Maewo) and latitudinal variation
(ranging from Anatom at 20° S to the Torres Islands at 15° S). We believe that the
complexity of folk taxonomies of kava in Vanuatu also indicates the antiquity of the
drug's use in these islands.
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Although
ecological conditions in Vanuatu are varied, kava cultivars are readily dispersed within
the archipelago via traditional exchange networks. This cultivar exchange has enriched
local germplasm collections. Shared generic and cultivar names for kava help trace the
dispersal of clonal material from island to island. In northern Vanuatu, for example, it
is interesting to note that the generic names for kava on Maewo (maloku), on Ambac
(malok), in northern Pentecost (mologu), and at Nokovoula in West Santo (malohu) are all
cognate with those of Tongoa (namaluk), Emae (namaloku), and Nguna (namaloku), and also
with that used in the Big Nambas region of North Malakula (malox), even though the people
of these islands speak languages belonging to three distinct linguistic groups (Tryon
1976). These cognates derive from a Proto-North Central Vanuatu form, *maloku, that
existed some 3000 years ago (Crowley 1990). One cultivar known on Ambae as tarivams also
occurs on Mota Lava (tarivarus), Vanua Lava (tarvarus), Macwo (tariparaus), northern
Pentecost Qaiivamsi), and southern Pentecost (tativarus). This cultivar has retained the
same name despite being scattered over several islands and a number of different language
areas.
Most Vanuatu cultivar names refer to distinctive morphological
features, to a legend, or in some cases to the name of the first person to develop and
cultivate the clone. In the Ngwatua language of the Nduindui area of Ambae, tari (as in
tarivarus) is a proper name. It may be that the tari cultivar was developed on Ambae and
was subsequently traded out to other communities, although no one today claims to have
originated the clone. The cultivar called ngame on Ureparapara undoubtedly has the same
genotype as nagame on Motalava, giemine on Vanua Lava, memea in northern Pentecost, tememe
in central Pentecost and memea on Ambae. All of these cultivar names, in fact, mean
"red." A cultivar known as rong rong vula in North Pentecost appears to have the
same genotype as one called rogo rogo pula in West Ambae and rong rong wul in central
Pentecost. Vula, pula, and wul all mean "moon" in the respective languages of
these three areas, while rong rong and rogo rogo both mean "to feel." A cultivar
called marino in central Santo is said to be native to a place of the same name in
northern Maewo. It is most likely a very recent introduction, possibly even by airplane.
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The cultivar
assemblages and folk taxonomy of P. methysticum are more varied and complex in some areas
of Vanuatu than in others. The areas of greater diversity may or may not be regions where
clonal selection originated. At the least, however, they are regions where, for ecological
or sociocultural reasons, a diverse and substantial genetic assemblage has been developed.
In these zones of intensive kava cultivation a relatively large part of the contemporary
gene pool of P. methysticum is concentrated.
Two of these areas-the islands of Pentecost and Tanna-lie on opposite
sides of a major biogeographic boundary located south of Efate, the central island of
Vanuatu (Schmid 1975). This frontier is also a linguistic (Tryon 1976) and cultural
divide. Between the regions on either side of this boundary, cultivar phenotypic
distinctiveness is sometimes substantially greater than geographical separation. In other
words, a cultivar from the Banks Islands may be morphologically more similar to an Epi
cultivar than the latter is to a geographically more proximate cultivar from Tanna or
Anatom. Kava morphotypes from the two major diversification centers, Pentecost and Tanna,
are so different that a farmer from one center visiting the other will fail to recognize
cultivars with which he is familiar. If the same farmer travels within his own region, on
the other hand, he will encounter a number of the familiar cultivars that grow on his home
island.
Clearly, significant differences in climatic conditions between the northern and southern
areas of Vanuatu have a direct bearing on local kava morphotypes. We suggest that, in
addition, kava has different origins in the two regions: it is a native domesticate in the
north but an import via Polynesia (although ultimately from northern Vanuatu) in the
south. According to the mythology of Tanna, kava was a relatively late introduction to
that island. One origin myth claims that it appeared some centuries ago along with
powerful magic and sorcery stones, the pig, and political phratries (Bormemaison 1987; see
also chapter 5). If so, then pigs and kava both may have been carried to Tanna from Samoa
or perhaps Tonga. Neither kava nor pigs is recorded as having reached New Caledonia,
somewhat farther to the southwest of Tanna. This history would also explain certain
Polynesian influences on kava use on Tanna, such as the generic name nikava and the use of
mastication rather than grinding to process the rootstock (Brunton 1989).
In the recent past, the biogeographic divide separating northern and southern Vanuatu has
broken down. Northern cultivars have made their way south and vice versa. For example, the
introduction to Erromango and Tanna of cultivars called vila (named after Port Vila on
Efate-today no longer an important area of cultivation) was definitely recent. Vila
cultivars are not necessarily all of the same genotype. They may be similar only in having
passed through that town on their way south. Cultivars known as I& on Erromango and
tiki on Anatom, which growers believe are native to the island of Tongariki, are probably
also recent imports from the north.
The
folk classification systems of Vanuatu's two main diversification areas are summarized
here:
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Pentecost
Cultivars. Growers on Pentecost believe that kava was introduced from Maewo Island
immediately to the north. Farmers describe the various cultivars grown in central
Pentecost (Melsisi area; Apma language) as follows:
1. Borogu: The
stems of this cultivar have a regular thickness and are brown, but turn green at the ends.
The leaves have a fairly pale green hue, but turn dark when cultivated in a coastal or
forest site. In dry areas, the ends of the leaves display a yellow tinge. They measure
approximately 15 centimeters long and 10 centimeters wide. The internodes vary in length
between 15 and 20 centimeters. Kava drink produced from this cultivar is slightly bitter
but quite strong, and a single cupful produces the desired effect. Boro means "small
in size." The root mass of the cultivar is fairly compact and does not grow deep, but
rather spreads out at a shallow depth. This cultivar is a kava drinker's favorite. Borogu
is called borogoru in the north of the island and gorogoro in the south.
2. Borogu temit: The appearance of this cultivar is identical to that of borogu except
that the stems are lighter in color (temit means "white" or "light").
It is planted primarily in forest areas. Kava made from this cultivar has an effect
comparable to that of borogoru. The cultivar is known as borogoru maita in the north and
gorogoro entepal in the south of the island.
3. Borogu teineme: Grown mostly in forest areas, this plant has the appearance of the
borogu cultivar but with violet stems (tememe means "red"). Kava made from this
cultivar has stronger psychoactive effects than the drink produced from borogoru temit.
Borogoru memea is the cultivar's name in the north; in the south it is gorogoro entemet.
4. Melmel: This cultivar produces very fine stems and branches and small yellow leaves.
Kava drink made from it has very feeble effects; thus it is called melmel, which means
"nothing." No aftereffects are felt the day following consumption, even if large
quantities are consumed. Usually it is reserved for chiefs because it allows them to carry
on drinking kava while talking for extended periods without losing control of their
muscles or nodding off to sleep. The melmel cultivar is a small plant, under two meters
tall, with internodes 20 to 25 centimeters long. In the north it is named sese.
5. Lalahk: The leaves of this cultivar are yellow, but of a paler shade than those of
melmel. It may be encountered growing as a relict in forest areas. In leaf form and size
it is identical to malmalbo (see cultivar 10 below), although the leaves are lighter in
color. The same can be said of the stems, which are not as thick, although otherwise the
same as those of malmalbo. The smell of this kava drink is similar to that of melmel, but
its effect is very potent. The cultivar is calledfabulakalaka in the north and laklak in
the south.
6. Abogae: The name of this cultivar is not native to the Apma language of central
Pentecost. It appears to have been introduced from the north, where it is known as
fabukhai. The cultivar is also grown by Pentecost Islanders on Santo, where it is known as
tudei ("two day") in the Bislama language. It produces a highly potent drink.
Its stems are slender and green.
7. Bukulit: This cultivar produces yellow leaves larger than those of melmel.
Buku means "small" and lit refers to pale spots on the internodes which, by
analogy, are associated with the skin spots on many Pentecost Islanders that are caused by
various fungi (including Pioasis versicolor). The cultivar is known as bukelita in the
Raga lang-uage of northern Pentecost.
8. Bogong: This form of P. wichmannii is not cultivated but grows wild in the forest.
Bogong means "big and strong." In the north it is called bogongo; in the south,
hap.
9. Bo: This cultivar is rarely consumed except as an admixture with other cultivars. It is
used to dilute quality kava (i.e., melmel and borogu) on feast days in order to increase
quantities of the ritual beverage. Its leaves, however, are widely used in traditional
medicine to treat boils and ulcers. Bo means "pig," a reference to an unpleasant
odor given off when the roots are infused. This cultivar also belongs to the P. wichmannii
taxon.
10. Malmalbo: Malmal means "rotten." The taste and smell of this cultivar are
reminiscent of rotten pig meat. It produces a highly potent beverage, and drinkers
experience its effects over two or three days. The cultivar is fairly uncommon and is used
mainly in traditional medicine to relieve rheumatic pains. Its stems are paler than those
of borogu and its leaves smell like those of melmel or bukulit. The laminae are a darker
green than those of borogu.
11. Take: The underside of the lamina of this cultivar is a reddish-brown. Kava drink made
from take is about as potent as melmel and has similar taste. Buasitake is the name of a
little brown bird with a long tail, perhaps the inspiration, by analogy of color, for the
name of this cultivar.
12. Tabak This cultivar is similar in general form to borogu tememe, but much larger. It
is often used as a windbreak near huts because it is very durable and decorative. A
five-year-old clone generally reaches a height of three to four meters. Tabal is a rarely
used for kava drinks because it produces a highly potent beverage. When a drinker feels
its effects he is reminded of war, balan, or doing battle, tabalan, the image evoked by
the name of this cultivar.
13. Rong rong wul.- This is a dark cultivar with purplish-blue stems and veins. It is
small and not very popular. Rong rong means "to feel" and wul means
"moon." It reportedly must be planted at full moon to grow properly.
14. Maga: This is a large, dark-green cultivar. Maga means "green."
15. Rara: The name of this cultivar means "of a perfectly even color," or
unblemished. Its internodes are indeed uniformly colored. It is also known as rara in the
northern Raga language.
16. Renkaru: This is a very rare and potent cultivar.
Additional Pentecost cultivars include tarivarusi in the north (tarivarus in the south),
which is not grown in the center of the island. A cultivar called sesejarakara in the
north is probably an environmental variant of the central sese cultivar.
Another
cultivar, known as jabualeva in the north, is very rare and used only by chiefs during
ceremonies. It is difficult to locate relatives of this cultivar in the center or south of
the island. Cultivar tamaevo ("from Maewo") in the south has no taxonomic
equivalent in the central or northern areas. The same is true of the kerakra and kwik
cultivars.
Tanna Cultivars. The folk taxonomy used in the central region (Lowiakima of Tanna
classifies cultivars as follows:
1. Pia: The name of this cultivar means "smooth" or "hairless,"
referring to the appearance of the internodes. A possible ecotypic variant of pia named
erman ("man") is distinguished by the arrangement of its internodes. The
beverage produced from this cultivar is the kava of reconciliation, traditionally used to
settle disputes and misunderstandings or to appease angry ancestors and spirits.
2. Rhowen: The name of this cultivar refers to its "white" stems, which are
actually very pale green in color. The beverage made from rhowen is drunk to guard against
sorcerers.
3. Fare: The name of this cultivar means "with roots coming out of the ground"
(adventitious prop roots). When the great nakwiati pig exchange and dance festival takes
place, this cultivar is used in kava exchange contests in which growers compete to display
and give away large plants.
4. Leai: This cultivar is named after a well-known sorcerer who lived in the south of the
island during the early part of this century and claimed to have found the first specimen
at the bottom of a volcanic crater. Leai also means "imp," "gnome,"
"dwarf," and other "little creatures dwelling in the forest." It is
popular because the beverage produced from the cultivar has a relatively mild psychoactive
effect. It attains heights of approximately 1.5 meters.
5. Apin: Meaning "black," the name of this cultivar refers to its dark
purplishblue stems. It is not very popular and is mainly used to treat rheumatism. It is
also planted close to the sacred area of the nakamal (kava drinking ground) where drinkers
spit tamafa, or kava libations, to their ancestors (see chapter 5). Apin is believed to be
a "magical" kava. It grows very slowly.
6. Ahouia: The stump of this cultivar (whose name means "yellow") has a very
distinct yellow interior, indicating that it is very potent (i.e., rich in kavalactone
resin; see chapter 3).
7. Tikiskis: This cultivar is named after a very jittery little bird. Indeed, if too much
tikiskis kava is drunk, nervousness results. The cultivar is grown mainly in the northwest
of the island on the White Grass Plateau.
8. Kiskisnian: This cultivar is multicolored and is mainly decorative. Nianthe name of a
coconut that has two different varieties, one "green" and the other
"white"-refers to the variegated appearance of the leaves of this kava cultivar
(probably due to a somatic mutation perpetuated by cloning).
9. Mira: This cultivar has very thick heavy roots, slender stems, and yellow leaves. It
usually looks dry and withered, but this is its normal appearance. The leaf laminae are
small and the young stems, which are highly erect, grow in the middle of the bunch. Kava
beverage produced from this cultivar has a powerful effect.
10. Malamala: The name of this cultivar means "bat." Its stems are identical to
those ofpia except that they have no flecks. It grows tall, to over three meters. Fruit
bats, known locally as "flying foxes" (Pteropus sp.) often perch on the plants.
It grows under a wide range of environmental conditions and can be used to produce a
potent kava drink.
11. Paama: This very popular cultivar was probably introduced recently from Paama Island.
It has thick stems and short internodes.
12. Yam: This cultivar has a Bislama name evocative of its slender stems, which are
similar to those of yams (Dioscorea alata). The stems are roughly textured, perhaps owing
to cutaneous necrosis.
13. Nik: This cultivar has thick, woody stems that are difficult to cut.
14. Nare: The young stems of this cultivar have very pale patches on the internodes.
15. Keleiai: A yam variant with very rough laminae.
16. Tuan: This cultivar is similar to pia but has much paler leaves.
Several
additional cultivars grown today on Tanna (pentecost, vila, tudei, andfiii) were probably
introduced recently. They have no ritual display or customary exchange significance.
The relative
complexity of a community's folk ethnobotanical classification system is not unequivocal
evidence of botanical antiquity, or even domestication, within that region. Although Tanna
possesses a rich folk taxonomy for kava, as noted above, R methysticum appears to have
arrived here from Polynesian sources to the east. Folk taxonomic complexity is nonetheless
probable evidence for a local history at least of clonal selection and development. The
degree of elaboration and detail within a folk taxonomy (which reflects, of course, local
diversity in kavagermplasm collections) should be considered alongside morphological and
genetic evidence in determining the origin of kava.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 3 Chemistry:
Active Principles and Their Effects
Chapter 7 Kava: A World
Drug?
Bibliography
Pictorial
Presentation of Kava |
